EXPOSURE TO HYDROGEN SULPHIDE AMONGST SEWAGE WORKERS IN A METROPOLITAN MUNICIPALITY IN GAUTENG PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17501/24246735.2025.10107Keywords:
Hydrogen sulphide concentration levels, health outcomes, hydrogen sulphide exposure, risk factors and wastewater treatment works workersAbstract
The study’s objectives were to determine concentration levels of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) in the working environment and its effects by describing the self-reported health effects and hydrogen sulphide among municipal sewage workers in the City of Johannesburg metropolitan municipality within Gauteng Province. One hundred and fifty- six participants from six different municipal wastewater treatment works were sampled. To determine any relation between self-reported outcomes and hydrogen sulphide exposure, a structured self-administered questionnaire was used. During an eight-hour shift, Drager X- am 5000 gas detectors were used to measure the concentration levels of hydrogen sulphide in the ambient air within three distances from operational sections. Concentration levels of hydrogen sulphide in the ambient air ranged from 0.99 ppm (parts per million) to 39.97 ppm, with a standard deviation (SD) of 8.72 and a mean of 12.83 ppm at a 5-meter distance, in effect the exposure levels were above the international and South African recommended exposure limit for an eight-hour shift. The self-reported health outcomes revealed that 33% of participants suffered from eye irritation, while 35% suffered from tiredness. The results also indicated that 33% of participants experienced headaches. Experiencing a burning sensation in the chest is positively correlated with hydrogen sulphide levels within 10 meters and 15 meters, according to the bivariate analysis. The results provide evidence of a correlation between self-reported outcomes and hydrogen sulphide exposure. The study also highlights that concentration levels of hydrogen sulphide closer to the source are much higher. Despite the current local and international legislation, workers continue to be exposed to higher levels of this harmful gas, thus highlighting the need for interventions.
References
Abdou, M.H. (2007) ‘Health impacts on workers in wastewater treatment plants in Jeddah city, Saudi Arabia.’, The Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association, 82(5–6), pp. 405-417. PMID: 18706296.
Al-Batanony, M A, El-Shafie, M.K. and Al-Batanony, Manal Ahmad (2011) Work-Related Health Effects among Wastewater Treatment Plants Workers, 2(4), pp. 237-243. www.theijoem.com. Available at: www.theijoem.com.
Austigard, Å.D., Smedbold, H.T. and Von Hirsch Svendsen, K. (2023) ‘Risk Characteristics of Hydrogen Sulphide Exposure in Wastewater Collection and Treatment Related Occupations’, Annals of Work Exposures and Health, 67(2), pp. 216–227. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/annweh/wxac065.
Austigard, Å.D., Svendsen, K. and Heldal, K.K. (2018) ‘Hydrogen sulphide exposure in wastewater treatment’, Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology, 13(1), pp.1-10. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12995-018-0191-z.
Bates, M.N. et al. (2015) ‘Investigation of hydrogen sulfide exposure and lung function, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in a geothermal area of New Zealand’, PLoS ONE, 10(3), pp.1- 16. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0122062.
Campbell, J.M. (2020) Petro Skills. Available at: http://www.jmcampbell.com/tip-of-the- month/2020/06/h2s-and-hydrogen-charging/.
Chou, C.-H.S.J. (Chi-H.S.J.) et al. (2003) Hydrogen sulfide: human health aspects. World Health Organization, 53, pp. 1-41. Available at: https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/42638.
Colomer, F.L. et al. (2012) ‘Characterization of the olfactory impact around a wastewater treatment plant: Optimization and validation of a hydrogen sulfide determination procedure based on passive diffusion sampling’, Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 62(8), pp. 863–872. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2012.686440.
Department of Employment and Labour (2021) Occupational Health and Safety act 1993: Regulations for Hazardous Chemical Agents, Government Notices. South Africa: Government Gazette. Available at: www.gpwonline.co.za.
Elwood, M. (2021) ‘The scientific basis for occupational exposure limits for hydrogen sulphide—a critical commentary’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. MDPI AG, pp. 1–17. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18062866.
Farahat, S.A., Kishk, N.A. and El-Kholy M (2008) Cognitive Functions Changes in Egyptian Sewage Networks Workers, Egypt J. Neurol. Psychiat. Neurosurg. 26(4), pp. 229-238. Available at: https://ejom.journals.ekb.eg.
Friis, Lennart. (2001) Health of municipal sewage workers: studies of cancer incidence, biomarkers of carcinogenicity and genotoxicity, and self-reported symptoms, 14(5), pp. 2-67. Available at: https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:167573/fulltext01.pdf.
Glas, C., Hotz, P. and Steffen, R. (2001) ‘Hepatitis A in workers exposed to sewage: A systematic review’, Occupational and Environmental Medicine, pp. 762–768. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.58.12.762.
Godoi, A.F.L. et al. (2018) ‘Human exposure to hydrogen sulphide concentrations near wastewater treatment plants’, Science of the Total Environment, 610–611, pp. 583–590. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.07.209.
Guidotti, T.L. (2010) ‘Hydrogen sulfide: Advances in understanding human toxicity’, International Journal of Toxicology, pp. 569–581. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/1091581810384882.
Inserra, S.G. et al. (2004) ‘Neurobehavioral evaluation for a community with chronic exposure to hydrogen sulfide gas’, Environmental Research, 95(1), pp. 53–61. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2003.08.005.
Jones, K. (2014) ‘Case studies of hydrogen sulphide occupational exposure incidents in the UK’, Toxicology Letters, 231(3), pp. 374–377. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.08.005.
Kilburn, K.H. (2012) ‘Human impairment from living near confined animal (Hog) feeding operations’, Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2012, pp. 1-11 Available at: https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/565690.
Latos, M. et al. (2011) ‘Dispersion of odorous gaseous compounds emitted from wastewater treatment plants’, Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 215(1–4), pp. 667–677. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-010-0508-8.
Legator, M.S. et al. (2001) ‘Health Effects from Chronic Low-Level Exposure to Hydrogen Sulfide’, 56(2), pp. 123–131. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/00039890109604063.
Lewis, R.J., and Copley, G.B. (2015) ‘Chronic low-level hydrogen sulfide exposure and potential effects on human health: A review of the epidemiological evidence’, Critical Reviews in Toxicology. Informa Healthcare, pp. 93–123. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3109/10408444.2014.971943.
Lim, E. et al. (2016) ‘Effect of environmental exposure to hydrogen sulfide on central nervous system and respiratory function: a systematic review of human studies’, International Journal of Occupational
and Environmental Health. Taylor and Francis Ltd., pp. 80–90. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1080/10773525.2016.1145881.
Mathenge, M. (2015). Archidatum.com. Available at: https://archidatum.com//articles/johannesburg- the-city-of-gold.
Matos, R.V., Ferreira, F., and Matos, J.S. (2020) ‘Influence of ventilation in H2S exposure and emissions from a gravity sewer’, Water Science and Technology, 81(10), pp. 2043–2056. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2020.253.
Moretti, M. et al. (2020) ‘Fatal poisoning of four workers in a farm: Distribution of hydrogen sulfide and thiosulfate in 10 different biological matrices’, Forensic Science International, 316, pp. 1-7. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110525.
Mousa, H.A.L. (2015) ‘Short-term effects of subchronic low-level hydrogen sulfide exposure on oil field workers’, Environmental Health, and Preventive Medicine, 20(1), pp. 12–17. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12199-014-0415-5.
Nogué, S. et al. (2011) ‘Fatal hydrogen sulphide poisoning in unconfined spaces’, Occupational Medicine, 61(3), pp. 212–214. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqr021.
Nunes, M.I. et al. (2021) ‘Hydrogen sulfide levels in the ambient air of municipal solid waste management facilities: A case study in Portugal’, Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 4, pp.1-5. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2021.100152.
Reed, B.R. et al. (2014) ‘Chronic ambient hydrogen sulfide exposure and cognitive function’, Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 42, pp. 68–76. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ntt.2014.02.002.
Saeedi, A., Najibi, A. and Mohammadi-Bardbori, A. (2015) Effects of Long-term Exposure to Hydrogen Sulfide on Human Red Blood Cells Background: Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) exhibits both physiological and toxicological roles in, 6(1), pp. 20-25. Available at: www.theijoem.com.
Teixeira, J. V. et al. (2013) ‘Assessment of indoor airborne contamination in a wastewater treatment plant’, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185(1), pp. 59–72. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2533-0.
Tiwari, R.R. (2008) Occupational health hazards in sewage and Occupational health hazards in sewage and sanitary workers sanitary workers, Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine,12(3), pp. 112-115. Available at: http://www.commonlii.
Wnek, S. et al. (2017) ‘Hazards after the storm: Floodwater drainage pump stations and exposure to hydrogen sulfide’, Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 14(4), pp. D39–D48. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2016.1252842.
Yalamanchili, C. and Smith, M.D. (2008) ‘Acute hydrogen sulfide toxicity due to sewer gas exposure’, American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 26(4), pp. 518.e5-518.e7. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2007.08.025.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Charlotte Mokoatle, Bongiwe
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The Conference Proceedings of International Conference on Public Health is entirely Open Access, which means that all published content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this Proceedings journal without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This is in accordance with the BOAI definition of open access.
Authors who publish with Conference Proceedings agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the Proceedings of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this conference proceedings.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the proceeding's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this conference proceedings.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work.
Licensing
Published articles are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
